History of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars

After the French Revolution transformed France and threatened the old order of Europe, France fought a series of wars against the monarchies of Europe to first protect and spread the revolution, and then to conquer territory. The later years were dominated by Napoleon and France’s enemy was seven coalitions of European states. At first,  Napoleon first bought success, transforming his military triumph into a political one, gaining the position of First Consul and then Emperor. But more war was to follow, perhaps inevitably given how Napoleon’s position was dependent upon military triumph, his predilection for solving issues through battle, and how the monarchies of Europe still looked at France as a dangerous enemy. Origins When the French revolution overthrew the monarchy of Louis XVI and declared new forms of government, the country found itself at odds with the rest of Europe. There were ideological divisions - the dynastic monarchies and empires opposed the new, partly republican thinking - and family ones, as relatives of those affected complained. But the nations of central Europe also had their eyes on dividing Poland between them, and when in 1791 Austria and Prussia issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, which asked Europe to act to restore the French monarchy, they actually worded the document to prevent war. However, France misinterpreted and decided to launch a defensive and pre-emptive war, declaring one in April 1792. The French Revolutionary Wars There were initial failures, and an invading German army took Verdun and marched close to Paris, promoting the September Massacres of Parisian prisoners. The French then pushed back at Valmy and Jemappes, before going further in their aims. On November 19th, 1792, the National Convention issued a promise of assistance to all people looking to regain their liberty, which was both a new idea for warfare and the justification to create allied buffer zones around France. On December 15th, they decreed that the revolutionary laws of France, including the dissolution of all aristocracy, were to be imported abroad by their armies. France also declared a set of expanded ‘natural borders’ for the nation, which put the emphasis on annexation rather than just ‘liberty’. On paper, France had set itself the task of opposing, if not overthrowing, every king to keep itself safe. A group of European powers opposed to these developments was now working as the First Coalition, the start of seven such groups formed to fight France before the end of 1815. Austria, Prussia, Spain, Britain and the United Provinces (Netherlands) fought back, inflicting reverses on the French which prompted the latter to declare a ‘levy en masse’, effectively mobilizing the whole of France into the army. A new chapter in warfare had been reached, and army sizes now began to rise greatly. The Rise of Napoleon and the Switch in Focus The new French armies had success against the coalition, forcing Prussia to surrender and pushing the others back. Now France took the chance to export the revolution, and the United Provinces became the Batavian Republic. In 1796, the French Army of Italy was judged to have been underperforming and was given a new commander called Napoleon Bonaparte, who’d first been noticed in the siege of Toulon. In a dazzling display of manoeuvre, Napoleon defeated Austrian and allied forces and forced the Treaty of Campo Formio, which earned France the Austrian Netherlands, and cemented the position of the French-allied republics in North Italy. It also allowed Napoleon’s army, and the commander himself, to gain large amounts of looted wealth. Napoleon was then given a chance to pursue a dream: attack in the Middle East, even on into threatening the British in India, and he sailed to Egypt in 1798 with an army. After initial success, Napoleon failed in a siege of Acre. With the French fleet seriously damaged in the Battle of the Nile against British Admiral Nelson, the Army of Egypt was greatly restricted: it could not get reinforcements and it could not leave. Napoleon soon left, some critics might say abandoned, this army to return to France when it looked like a coup would take place. Napoleon was able to become the centerpiece of a plot, levering his success and power in the army to become the First Consul of France in the Coup of Brumaire in 1799. Napoleon then acted against the forces of the Second Coalition, an alliance that had gathered to exploit Napoleon’s absence and which involved Austria, Britain, Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and other smaller states. Napoleon won the Battle of Marengo in 1800. Along with a victory by French general Moreau at Hohenlinden against Austria, France was thus able to defeat the Second Coalition. The result was France as the dominant power in Europe, Napoleon as a national hero and a possible end to the warfare and chaos of the revolution. The Napoleonic Wars Britain and France were briefly at peace but soon argued, the former wielding a superior navy and great wealth. Napoleon planned an invasion of Britain and gathered an army to do so, but we don’t know how serious he was about ever carrying it out. But Napoleon’s plans became irrelevant when Nelson again defeated the French with his iconic victory at Trafalgar, shattering Napoleon’s naval strength. A third coalition now formed in 1805, allying Austria, Britain, and Russia, but victories by Napoleon at Ulm and then the masterpiece of Austerlitz broke the Austrians and Russians and forced an end to the third coalition. In 1806 there were Napoleonic victories, over Prussia at Jena and Auerstedt, and in 1807 the Battle of Eylau was fought between a fourth coalition army of Prussians and Russians against Napoleon. A draw in the snow in which Napoleon was nearly captured, this marks the first major setback for the French General. The stalemate led to the Battle of Friedland, where Napoleon did win against Russia and ended the Fourth Coalition. The Fifth coalition formed and had success by blunting Napoleon at the Battle Aspern-Essling in 1809 when Napoleon tried to force a way across the Danube. But Napoleon regrouped and tried once more, fighting the Battle of Wagram against Austria. Napoleon won, and the Archduke of Austria open peace talks. Much of Europe was now either under direct French control or technically allied. There were other wars; Napoleon invaded Spain to install his brother as king, but instead triggered a brutal guerrilla war and the presence of a successful British field army under Wellington – but Napoleon remained largely master of Europe, creating new states such as the German Confederation of the Rhine, giving crowns to family members, but bizarrely forgiving some difficult subordinates. The Disaster in Russia The relationship between Napoleon and Russia began to fall apart, and Napoleon resolved to act quickly to overawe the Russian tsar and bring him to heel. To this end, Napoleon gathered what was probably the largest army ever assembled in Europe, and certainly a force too big to adequately support. Looking for a quick, dominant victory, Napoleon pursued a retreating Russian army deep into Russia, before winning the carnage that was the Battle of Borodino and then taking Moscow. But it was a pyrrhic victory, as Moscow was set alight and Napoleon was forced to retreat through the bitter Russian winter, damaging his army and ruining the French cavalry. The Final Years With Napoleon on the back foot and obviously vulnerable, a new Sixth Coalition was organized in 1813, and pushed across Europe, advancing where Napoleon was absent, and retreating where he was present. Napoleon was forced back as his ‘allied’ states took the chance to throw off the French yoke. 1814 saw the coalition enter the borders of France and, abandoned by his allies in Paris and many of his marshals, Napoleon was forced into surrendering. He was sent to the island of Elba in exile. The 100 Days With time to think while exiled in Elba, Napoleon resolved to try again, and in 1815 he returned to Europe. Amassing an army as he marched to Paris, turning those sent against him to his service, Napoleon attempted to rally support by making liberal concessions. He soon found himself faced by another coalition, the Seventh of the French Revolutionary and Napoleon Wars, which included Austria, Britain, Prussia, and Russia. Battles were fought at Quatre Bras and Ligny before the Battle of Waterloo, where an allied army under Wellington withstood the French forces under Napoleon until a Prussian army under Blà ¼cher arrived to give the coalition the decisive advantage. Napoleon was defeated, retreated, and forced to abdicate once more. Peace The monarchy was restored in France, and the heads of Europe gathered at the Congress of Vienna to redraw the map of Europe. Over two decades of tumultuous warfare had finished, and Europe would not be so disrupted again until World War 1 in 1914. France had used two million men as soldiers, and up to 900,000 had not come back. Opinion varies on whether the war devastated a generation, some arguing that the level of conscription was only a fraction of the possible total, others pointing out that the casualties came heavily from one age group.

Robert Nixon was an African-American serial killer who...

Robert Nixon was an African-American serial killer who confessed to five murders and multiple assaults in Chicago and Los Angeles from 1936 to 1938. He was born on June 16, 1919, in the small town Tallulah, Louisiana. The press gave Nixon the nickname Brick Moron† after he confessed to the â€Å"brick bat murders† (Arney). Edna Worden, her 12-year-old daughter, Rose Valdez, Elizabeth Rice, and Zoe Damrell were a few of his many victims. After Nixon was arrested, he was sentenced to death and electrocuted on June 15, 1939 (Patillo). In the Lewiston Daily, June Arney wrote that Nixon broke into a woman’s home in Chicago in 1936 and looted her house before beating her to death with his â€Å"famous† brick. In 1937, he continued his killings in Los†¦show more content†¦These stories worsened racial tensions in Chicago, and the murder and resulting press frightened the white residents of the area, triggering â€Å"white flight from the once-elite areas that now bordered black districts† (Patillo). Nixon initially denied having any connection with the killings, but the Los Angeles Polices fingerprint evidence proved him wrong. During his trial, he eventually confessed to raping and murdering Anna Kuchta in 1937 and assaulting at least seventeen other women. However, he blamed his accomplice, Earl Hicks, for the murder of Johnson during his trial. Hicks, who was also under arrest, put the blame for Johnsons murder solely on Nixon. Nixon’s defense that his accomplice had killed the woman failed, and the Illinois Supreme Court ruled that they both were equally responsible for this murder. Nixon was convicted of the murder and was executed in the electric chair at the Cook County Jail in 1939 (Arney). When Richard Wright completed his draft of Native Son, Robert Nixon was charged with murdering a woman by beating her with a brick. In his essay, How Bigger Was Born, Wright admitted to copying details from press stories of the Robert Nixon case. By mixing his own â€Å"insight into the urban slum experience of African Americans,† Wright created the â€Å"disturbing portrait† of Bigger Thomas, who

Infectious Disease Malaria Essay - 595 Words

Section 1 Malaria General Information Malaria is a common infectious disease found mainly in the tropics but in rare circumstances can be found in temperate areas. Depending on the circumstances malaria can be either life threatening cause serious illness. It is caused by parasites of the Plasmodium species(in text reference). These parasites are carried by mosquitoes which become infected after biting someone who has malaria. Malaria is then passed on to others when the infected mosquito bites another person. In rare cases malaria can be passed to another person through blood transfusions, organ donations or shared needles. On average there are around 300-500 million people who become infected with malaria every year, with most of the†¦show more content†¦Signs and Symptoms Symptoms that are usually associated with yellow fever include fever, poor appetite, nausea, chills, muscle pains in the back and headaches abdominal back pain. These symptoms usually subside after five days. These symptoms sometimes reoccur. Abdominal pain and liver damage starts causing yellow skin. There also is a higher chance of kidney problems. About 15-15% then proceed to the ‘toxic’ stage of which around 50% then die around 14 days after catching yellow fever. Dengue Fever General Information Dengue fever is a mosquito-transmitted virus, it is a Flavivirus which is the same genus as yellow fever. There are five different varieties of the virus and being infected usually gives lifelong immunity to that particular variety and short-term immunity to the other varieties. However this also increases the risk of having a severe reaction to the other types, this risk rises with exposure to another type and so on. Symptoms and Treatment Symptoms from the virus include headaches, back pain, joint pains, fever and a skin rash, which is similar in appearance to measles. A small percentage of infections the disease develops into a life threatening dengue haemorrhagic fever, which results in bleeding, low levels of blood platelets and blood plasma leakage. The other life threatening possibility is dengue shock syndrome; thisShow MoreRelatedMalaria Is An Infectious Disease1021 Words   |  5 PagesBackground Malaria is considered as one of the deadliest diseases around the world. The cases of malaria are getting worse and more serious especially in the African countries. Almost 40% of the world’s population could be affected by the disease. Malaria could cause over 1 million deaths each year and could result to enormous damages to human and social-being (Gething et al., 2014). Most of the international organizations concerning human health have been working on provisions for early the diagnosisRead MoreGlobal Warming Has A Effect On The Size Of The Vector Population912 Words   |  4 Pages 2.2 Vector-borne infections Vector-borne diseases are infections transmitted by the bite of infected arthropod species, such as mosquitoes, ticks, sandflies and blackflies.14 The largest health impact from global warming worldwide would occur from vector-borne infectious diseases because arthropod vectors are cold-blooded and thus, are very sensitive to climatic factors.4,14 Therefore, vectors and pathogens are predominantly affected by high temperature, as weather affects their survival and reproductionRead More infectious diseases Essay672 Words   |  3 Pagesand death from infectious diseases are particularly tragic because they are preventable and treatable. Not surprisingly, the poorest and most vulnerable are the most severely affected by infectious disease. Infectious diseases are a major cause of death, disability and social and economic turmoil for millions around the world. Poverty stricken countries lack access to health care. Reports show that in nations with the lowest economic status the causes of death are primarily infectious and nutritionalRead MoreSouth Afric An Endemic Region Of Ghana996 Words   |  4 Pagestelltale signs of malaria. This came as no grand surprise, as West Africa has long been recognized as an endemic region. However, as we drove to a nearby chemist to retrieve a dose oral antibiotics, my host father described the changes he’s observed in Ghana’s malaria since he was a child – and this was startling. He illustrated the discrepancy between the way the land appears now and how it did in times past, suggesting that these alterations are connected to transformation in malaria incidence. PalmRead MoreThe First Malaria Vaccine Trail1272 Words   |  6 Pages they spoke about the first malaria vaccine trail in humans. 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There is no single biology class, in Niger’s educational system from middle school to high school that did not include a chapter on Malaria, andRead MoreCommunicable Diseases : Communicable Disease904 Words   |  4 Pagesand Non-Communicable Diseases Communicable diseases spread from one person to another or from an animal to a person. The spread often happens via airborne viruses or bacteria, but also through blood or other bodily fluid. The terms infectious and contagious are also used to describe communicable disease according to the Global Health webpage. The amount of infectious diseases in Liberia is slowly crippling the country. One of the major killers in Liberia happens to be Malaria, which accounts for theRead MoreIndia s Health Issues Of India1259 Words   |  6 Pagespopulation, India has become a major manufacturing country that has experienced positive progress. Despite the manufacturing success, India still faces major health issues. Some of the country’s primary health problems are malaria, malnutrition/over nutrition, and cardiovascular disease. These health concerns come from poor sanitation and fresh water in different locations in India, without the proper sanitation and preventive measures there will always be health issues among the country’s people. BeforeRead MoreHow Climate Change Is Affecting The Spread Of Infectious Diseases Around The Globe1631 Words   |  7 Pagesto the spreading and occurrence of many infectious diseases. Vectors and pathogens that were not able to spread to certain countries before because temperatures were too low for them to survive in are now being able to habituate these parts of the world because of how much warmer our planet is becoming. This is concerning to us because infectious diseases can increase death rates. Therefore, if our planet continues to get warmer, the more infectious diseases will spread, and the more humans will dieRead MoreWhat Lies Within1401 Words   |  6 PagesMalaria According to the ONE CAMPAIGN approximately 219 people live in the world with malaria and 90% of those who died from malaria are from sub-Saharan Africa. There are many important risk factors that are highly associated with malaria. Those who are poor in these undeveloped countries live in places where mosquito density tends to be high and because they are unable to afford instecide treated nets over their beds when they are asleep or spray that they could potentially spray around their

Niccolò Machiavelli is very well known as an important and...

Niccolà ² Machiavelli is very well known as an important and influential Italian historian, politician, philosopher, and writer during the Renaissance. His book, Discourses on Livy, is a discussion regarding the classical history of early Ancient Rome, although it uses contemporary political examples and strays far away from the subject of Rome at times. It is presented as a series of lessons on how a republic should be started and structured. Most importantly, it constantly brings up the idea of corruption and corrupt people, which is not surprising because we all desire things and search for the simplest way to obtain it, even though the easiest way to obtain something might be a corrupt way. When Machiavelli uses the term â€Å"corrupt† or†¦show more content†¦It seems more difficult to change the regime. This is the source of corruption. When one class of society strives to better themselves and succeed in doing so, it causes corruption. Machiavelli spends a chun k of Discourses on Livy discussing how states are corrupt and the citizens within them are corrupt as well. The first important point he makes when it comes to corruption is that men do not know how to be entirely good or bad. He claims, â€Å"they concluded that men clearly do not know how to be honourably bad or perfectly good, and that when an evil deed contains in itself some grandeur or some generosity, they do not know how to carry it out† (Machiavelli 82). Thus, Machiavelli is elaborating on the theme of good and bad and how even those who are good and are not considered corrupt still make bad decisions sometimes. Generally, men decide on a middle course, instead of choosing a completely good or bad course. This decision is seen as most hazardous because it is hard to claim someone is good if they do not make entirely good decisions and it is hard to claim someone is bad if they do not make entirely bad decisions. The second important point Machiavelli makes is that me n are easily corrupted and even those who are good can easily turn bad. He states, â€Å"It should also be noted, in this matter or the decemvirate, how easily men may be corrupted and how they may transform themselves and giveShow MoreRelatedThe Life And Importance Of Machiavelli Essay1367 Words   |  6 PagesLife and Importance of Machiavelli â€Å"There are three kinds of intelligence: one kind understands things for itself, the other appreciates what others can understand, the third understands neither for itself nor through others. This first kind is excellent, the second good, and the third kind useless† (Niccolà ² Quotes). Niccolà ² Machiavelli was one of the greatest influences on our world today. His research and philosophies explored new strategies and ways of thinking. Machiavelli was before his own timeRead MoreThe Rebirth Of Ancient Cultures1462 Words   |  6 PagesItaly is known as the â€Å"cradle of the Renaissance† (la culla del Rinascimento). It is a city full of beautiful architecture, art, and history. The Renaissance was a powerful cultural movement that not only shaped all aspects of Florentine life, but eventually the rest of Europe. Science, art, literature, philosophy, religion, architecture, and politics have seen heavy influences by this movement. The term Renaissance literally m eans â€Å"rebirth†: the rebirth of man and the rebirth of two important ancientRead MoreMedieval Europe And The Renaissance Essay3095 Words   |  13 Pagesalso came about. Banking was a great supporter of the Renaissance, Italian bankers were bankers of the pope and all trade was going through them. Cities rise in importance and farms get closed off and are owned privately which moves toward a market economy. The Renaissance was not an economic boom because the advancements were happening in different places, at different times and at different rates. Literature was very important during this time. Literature was starting to be written in the vernacularRead MoreEssay on Art Throughout History2129 Words   |  9 Pagesof the printing press (outside of what is now China) by the German polymath Johannes Gutenberg in the 1440`s. Indeed it must also be conjectured as to the distribution of works which are now considered essential in the esoteric world of the art historian: â⠂¬ ¢ Ghiberti`s I Commetarii (1455); †¢ Antonio Manetti`s biography of Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) †¢ Leonardo da Vinci`s notebooks (1452-1519) which were preserved by his students; †¢ Albrecht Dà ¼rer`s notes and writings; †¢ Giorgio Vasari`s ViteRead MoreThe Renaissance Period3406 Words   |  14 Pagesin this dissertation is that the Renaissance in Europe, with specific emphasis on Italy, during the 15th Century, was the most influential period in developing the ‘early modern’ human society. Many believe that this was due to its almost perfect location between Western Europe and the Eastern shore of the Mediterranean. By analysing various factors and sources, as well as different aspects of society, for example political factors and the views of contemporary texts, it will provide enlighteningRead MoreRational Appeasement15291 Words   |  62 PagesWinston Churchill ridiculed appeasement as the strategy of â€Å"one who feeds a crocodile , hoping it will eat him last+† 1 Reasons for distrusting the policy were, in fact, noticed long before Munich+ Classical political thinkers from Thucydides to Machiavelli offer many statements of the anti-appeasement view+ Appeasement, many argue, is not just futile: it is self-destructive+ The danger is most acute when many potential challengers exist+ Acceding to one challenger undermines the appeaser’s reputation

Descartes Meditations On First Philosophy - 807 Words

Conner Ruhl Professor Copley Philosophy 1000C 4 May 2015 Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy Rene Descartes was the first great philosopher of the modern era, He had a new approach which was focused on scientific and mathematical truths. Descartes came to reject the scholastic tradition, one of which he was educated, due to his pursuit of mathematical and scientific truth. Much of Descartes work was done to secure advancement of human knowledge through the use of the natural sciences. His radical and unorthodox philosophy went against the church but Descartes managed to cautiously express his radical work in its entirety. In Descartes Meditations he focuses on universal truths and their proof of existence. In Meditation 5, Descartes speaks about his proofs of mathematical truths and the existence of god. There are 3 parts that he focuses on in his Meditation 5 and they are the distinction between fabricated and innate things, the second proof of gods existence, and his overcoming of the origins argument and recovering ma thematical knowledge. Descartes speaks about the distinction between innate and fabricated things. An innate thing is defined as something natural. Fabricated on the other hand is defined as something constructed or manufactured. According to Descartes, innate ideas have a â€Å"determinate nature, essence, or form which is unchangeable and eternal.† He uses the example of a triangle to provide proof of this. He points out what seems to be uniqueShow MoreRelatedDescartes Meditations On First Philosophy1079 Words   |  5 PagesThroughout Descartes’ Meditations on First Philosophy, Descartes argues for the ideas and philosophical beliefs behind skepticism. In his writings, he describes the fallibility and importance of the body of man and through extension the senses with which we observe the world. This paper will first show that within Descartes’ writings the body is an extension of the mind. Secondly, this paper will prove that the senses are a false form of understanding which le ads to the deception of the mind. FinallyRead MoreDescartes Meditations On First Philosophy1318 Words   |  6 PagesPhilosophical Questions November 2, 2017 Cogito Ergo Sum Descartes Meditations on First Philosophy and his questioning of our existence in reality is a question which philosophers have tackled throughout time. Cogito ergo sum or I think therefore I am, a phrase brought about by Descartes is the backbone of his whole philosophy of our existence in reality. As long as we are thinking things, we exist. When we look at this approach to our existence we must first deny that any sensory data that we receive is believableRead MoreDescartes Meditations Of First Philosophy857 Words   |  4 PagesChristopher Joao Philosophy- 201 Mr. Jurkiewicz 4 March 2016 Descartes’ - Meditation #2 Rene Descartes was a French philosopher born in 1596. He is considered by many the father of modern philosophy and continues to have tremendous influence in the philosophical world to this day. The book, Meditations of First Philosophy, consist of six meditations and describes one meditation per day for six days. In meditation two, he claims that we have better knowledge of our own minds than of the physicalRead MoreDescartes Meditations On First Philosophy1264 Words   |  6 PagesDescartes’ Meditations on First Philosophy is a first-person record of Descartes’ descent into the bowels of disbelief, in order to eradicate all flawed belief from his life. In his first meditation, Descartes explains his argument for universal doubt, which leads him to doubt every truth he has ever established. Even the veracity of his sense perception is doubtful, as he renders those perceptions useless by arguing that in dreams, sense perceptions create the wildest of fantasies that can not beRead MoreDescartes Meditations On First Philosophy1712 Words   |  7 PagesDescartes’ Meditations on First Philosophy (1641) contains six Meditations. In the first two of these Descartes addresses doubt and certainty. By the end of the second Meditation Descartes establishes the possibility of certainty by concluding that he is a â€Å"thinking thing† and that this is beyond doubt. Having established the possibility of certainty, Descartes attempts to prove the existence of God. The argument he presents in the Third Meditation for the existence of God has been nicknamed theRead MoreDescartes Meditations On First Philosophy1536 Words   |  7 Pagesdid I formerly think I was? A man, of course. But what is a man?† (Descartes 340). This question that Descartes addresses in Meditations on First Philosophy is important because it outlines his core philosophical view in his work. His philosophy primarily focuses on dualism, which is the concept that there is another world that exists with ideal forms and is separate from the world of perception. The part of dualism that Descartes focuses his work on is the distinction between the soul and the bodyRead MoreDescartes Meditation On First Philosophy943 Words   |  4 Pages In the third meditation of Descartes Meditation on First Philosophy, Descartes argues that his idea of God must have come from God himself. One can also wonder whether that very own argument could also apply when Descartes has an idea of the Evil Demon. In this paper, I will argue that Descartes would not think that his having an idea of the Evil Demon proves that the Evil Demon exists. In his paper, Descartes was trying to find the source of his idea of God in order to prove that GodRead MoreDescartes Meditations On First Philosophy1080 Words   |  5 PagesRene Descartes’ Meditations on First Philosophy, God is not mentioned until the third meditation. Descartes point of view on God simply claims his existence through the act of being. According to his claim, God must, essentially, exist as well as being an outcome of His own creation. Descartes was greatly interested in the idea that God’s being promoted an external force that controlled all beings that supported his presence. Descartes declarations, presented in his Meditations on First PhilosophyRead MoreDescartes Meditations On First Philosophy1961 Words   |  8 PagesIn Descartes’ Meditations on First Philosophy, I will be considering if Descartes resolution to the â€Å"dreaming argument† seems acceptable to trust. The First Meditation is where the â€Å"dreaming argument † is first mentioned and then gets resolved later in the Sixth Meditation and the Objections and Replies. I will be touching on the idea that our experiences could be dreaming experiences based on personal experiences and thoughts I have had regarding this topic. Then I will go on to explain how it isRead MoreDescartes Meditations On First Philosophy922 Words   |  4 PagesIn Rene Descartes’ excerpt, Meditations on First Philosophy, he proclaims, â€Å"It is beyond question that I shall reach the truth if I think hard enough about the things that I perfectly understand, keeping them separate from all the other matters in which my thoughts are more confused and obscure† ( §104). When Descartes made this statement in his fourth meditation, what was he conjecturing by the term â€Å"perfect?† According to the standard interpretation, perfect encompasses all required or desirable

Of Death Essay Example For Students

Of Death Essay MEN fear death, as children fear to go in the dark; and as that natural fear in children, is increased with tales, so is the other. Certainly, the contemplation of death, as the wages of sin, and passage to another world, is holy and religious; but the fear of it, as a tribute due unto nature, is weak. Yet in religious meditations, there is sometimes mixture of vanity, and of superstition. You shall read, in some of the friars books of mortification, that a man should think with himself, what the pain is, if he have but his fingers end pressed, or tortured, and thereby imagine, what the pains of death are, when the whole body is corrupted, and dissolved; when many times death passeth, with less pain than the torture of a limb; for the most vital parts, are not the quickest of sense. And by him that spake only as a philosopher, and natural man, it was well said, Pompa mortis magis terret, quam mors ipsa. Groans, and convulsions, and a discolored face, and friends weeping, and blacks, and obsequies, and the like, show death terrible. It is worthy the observing, that there is no passion in the mind of man, so weak, but it mates, and masters, the fear of death; and therefore, death is no such terrible enemy, when a man hath so many attendants about him, that can win the combat of him. Revenge triumphs over death; love slights it; honor aspireth to it; grief flieth to it; fear preoccupateth it; nay, we read, after Otho the emperor had slain himself, pity which is the tenderest of affections provoked many to die, out of mere compassion to their sovereign, and as the truest sort of followers. Nay, Seneca adds niceness and satiety: Cogita quamdiu eadem feceris; mori velle, non tantum fortis aut miser, sed etiam fastidiosus potest. A man would die, though he were neither valiant, nor miserable, only upon a weariness to do the same thing so oft, over and over. It is no less worthy, to observe, how little alteration in good spirits, the approaches of death make; for they appear to be the same men, till the last instant. Augustus CÃÆ'ƒÂ ¦sar died in a compliment; Livia, conjugii nostri memor, vive et vale. Tiberius in dissimulation; as Tacitus saith of him, Jam Tiberium vires et corpus, non dissimulatio, deserebant. Vespasian in a jest, sitting upon the stool; Ut puto deus fio. Galba with a sentence; Feri, si ex re sit populi Romani, holding forth his neck. Septimius Severus in despatch: Adeste si quid mihi restat agendum. And the like. Certainly the Stoics bestowed too much cost upon death, and by their great preparations, made it appear more fearful. Better saith he, Qui finem vitÃÆ'ƒÂ ¦ extremum inter munera ponat naturÃÆ'ƒÂ ¦. It is as natural to die, as to be born; and to a little infant, perhaps, the one is as painful, as the other. He that dies in an earnest pursuit, is like onethat is wounded in hot blood; who, for the time, scarce feels the hurt; and therefore a mind fixed, and bent upon somewhat that is good, doth avert the dolors of death. But, above all, believe it, the sweetest canticle is Nunc dimittis; when a man hath obtained worthy ends, and expectations. Death hath this also; that it openeth the gate to good fame, and extinguisheth envy. Extinctus amabitur idem. that is wounded in hot blood; who, for the time, scarce feels the hurt; and therefore a mind fixed, and bent upon somewhat that is good, doth avert the dolors of death. But, above all, believe it, the sweetest canticle is Nunc dimittis; when a man hath obtained worthy ends, and expectations. Death hath this also; that it openeth the gate to good fame, and extinguisheth envy. Extinctus amabitur idem.

Reflection on Cultural Awareness for Intercultural Communications

Question: Discuss about theReflection on Cultural Awareness for Intercultural Communications. Answer: The saying that Fish without water often goes for individual who finds himself or herself in a situation where he should not be present or where he is very much uncomfortable to exist. A fish only lives in water and this is its obvious place to survive. When an individual remains in the place where he should be present in his comfort zone, it may be said that he is a fish who is living at his best place that is in water. However when he is not in the place where he is accustomed to, he may feel himself a fish who is taken out of the water that is out of his place where he is accustomed to. When I joined the Australian firm for internship, I had the same feeling where I felt that I had been taken out of my comfort zone from among the known faces and similar culture to that of unknown faces with different culture. From my learning on intercultural communications and theories, I had developed an idea about how cultural conflicts arise and how different person have biases towards another culture. A similar experience I also faced in the new firm. As I was from an Asian background, we follow totally different forms of greetings and biding goodbyes which were not at all liked by the Australian colleagues of the new firm. They made fun of the ways how I talked and conducted my activities. Some of them also showed biasness towards my culture which made me feel agitated. The Australian culture of workplace management was quite different as the environment was more informal which did not match with the work styles followed by Asian. Moreover I was also unable to understand their working cultural traditions and preferences as there was no one to guide me. However, my theories that I learnt in my university helped me a lot. I understood that I have to be open minded enough to respect other cultures and at the same time show my adaptability skills to match with the new environment. Two important components I have to incorporate is being aware of my own cultural traditions and preferences consciously and at the same time gather knowledge about the cultural preferences and inhibitions of the employees of the Australian firm. I have to be flexible enough to come out form my insecurity zones as feeling a fish out of the water would never help me to overcome the barrier of culture and emerge successful. Rather, I should try to use my communication skills effectively with the proper body language that Australians use and try to be one of them for effective team membership. This flexibility would make me feel respected where they would also try their best to develop ideas about my culture (Forehand Kotchick, 2017). I also had certain biasness towards their culture as I thought them to be casual with their behaviors with their employees which is not accepted in Asian firms. Rather, I tried to find its positive side and understood that it has a good benefit. This attitude helps in proper relationship building between individuals and helps in maintaining a transparency which increases effective communication and hence productivity. Asians are much formal with their approach and do not maintain such transparency which often results in development of negative feelings (Purnell, 2016). Hence, I decided to look towards the brighter idea to adapt to the new surrounding so that I do not feel fish out of the water anymore. A similar experience was faced by me and my friend who had come to the nation of Australian for completing out higher education in business management. He was of the Islamic background and belonged to the Kashmir region of India. He had his own set of traditions where he had to maintain certain outlook according to the need of his religious beliefs. On the first day of the university, he had faced certain biasness form some of the Australian students in the university. During a conversation with them, they made fun of his long beard and his sense of dressing irrespective of trying to understand his cultural traditions. Not only that, an Australian student also asked him from which country he came from. When he replied India, they made remark that Muslims usually come from Pakistan. This not only reflected their limited knowledge about other cultures, traditions, geography and demography but also showed their insensitive nature to make such remark (Ferraro Briody, 2017). This had aff ected my friends emotions and he felt broken down. Such situations are common occurrences in every nation in workplaces, study places sand others. In such scenario, it becomes extremely important for any individual coming to a new nation to develop a mind set of facing different biasness and preconceptions. Rather than feeling agitated or emotionally affected, he should take the opportunity to explain his cultural traditions and preferences with pride and polite way so that the opposite people can identify his own mistakes (Spencer, 2013). Developing the value that a person with other cultural traditions would be less knowledgeable about the individual is important as that will lead to less negative feelings and more strength of empowerment. The video showed a similar situation where the English men had preconceptions about the Korean women just from her appearance although she was born and brought up in San Diego and spoke perfect English. One should be positive about such situatio n and explain the opposite person about the cultural traditions and inhibitions to make him aware. This form of transparency should be adapted by every individual not only them who travel to new nations but also among individuals of the host country so that the reflection of human emotions and tenderness can be exhibited (Ang Van Dyne, 2015). Development of proper intercultural communication skills, self regulation, self awareness about cultural traditions, and adaptability to new culture, sensitivity while talking with people form opposite cultures and similar should be practiced by both the individuals coming from other backgrounds and that of the same host country. All these would ensure higher productivity at workplace, development of strong bonds among team members and a smooth workflow without any conflicts and negative feelings (Pedersen et al., 2015). I once had a chance of interacting with one of my friends father when I visited her place for studying together for our projects. As she was not in her place, I had to wait and during this time I had a chance of interacting with her father. After a short introduction, we soon entered into some serious discussion out of which the significant part of the transcripts is depicted: Sarahs father: When I travelled to your country, I had a weird experience. All the brown people there were staring at my wife as they have never seen women in their lives. Probably, they might have not seen white skin before. Me: It is really a bad experience of you, I must say. Sarahs father: Yes, I came to know form a friend of mine there that men there are not comfortable there to see their wives working. That is really not a good one as men there dominate women. Me: however, our cultural traditions had long supported such system. However, women are now trying to break the barriers and emerging out with good education, career and independent lives Sarahs father: It sounds good but I doubt as gender biasness have been huge issues in your country. Me: with the passage of time, our country is progressing Sarahs father: one interesting thing that was quite funny was how you people touch others foot when you meet. That is really unhygienic. Me: we mainly do it as a matter of showing respect to the elders Sarahs father: That is quite funny and how you say Namaste with flowers and incense sticks who on earth would do that? Me: each and every country has traditions that are set by ancestors and we respect our culture the way it is. From the entire discussion, I felt quite agitated as Sarah father named Mr. Greens conversations reflected he cultural preconceptions that he harbored within himself. He had developed some notions form certain experiences which he had applied to the entire nation of my country. He was insensitive in his approach and his statements made me develop the feeling of otherness as his comments made distinctions between our culture and Australian culture. Gender biasness was stated by him as a factor which is no more a concern in our country as women are now taking on education and career with the same length as their male counterparts. His idea thereby reflected a preconceived notion of our culture which no longer hold true. However, a mockery was noted in his acceptance of the fact. Moreover he also made fun of the cultural traditions of greetings elders in our country. He is actually not sensitive but impolite in his comments as he should have the idea about how to put sensitive things in a polished way. Moreover racism was noted in his speech when he used words like brown people. Therefore a strong sense of otherness was felt. However, the remarks which are made should never be put in such unskilled way (Tomalin Stempleski, 2013). If an individual is really curious about other cultures, he should develop the skill to put it in a sensitive way at the same time of respecting the culture of the positive aspects and wanting to know the main rationale behind the tradition rather than making fun of them (Katan, 2014). References: Ang, S., Van Dyne, L. (2015).Handbook of cultural intelligence. Routledge. Ferraro, G. P., Briody, E. K. (2017).The cultural dimension of global business. Taylor Francis. Forehand, R., Kotchick, B. A. (2016). Cultural Diversity: A Wake-Up Call for Parent TrainingRepublished Article.Behavior therapy,47(6), 981-992. Katan, D. (2014).Translating cultures: An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. Routledge. Pedersen, P. B., Lonner, W. J., Draguns, J. G., Trimble, J. E., Scharron-del Rio, M. R. (Eds.). (2015).Counseling across cultures. Sage. Purnell, L. (2016). Are we really measuring cultural competence?.Nursing science quarterly,29(2), 124-127. Spencer, M. B. (2013). Cultural cognition and social cognition as identity correlates of Black children's personal-social development.MJ Peebles-Kleiger, Beginnings: The Art and Science of Planning Psychotherapy, 215-260. Tomalin, B., Stempleski, S. (2013).Cultural Awareness-Resource Books for Teachers. Oxford University Press.